Introduction
The contemporary concept of reparations primarily refers to compensatory measures proposed or undertaken to redress the injustices and enduring legacies of slavery and systemic racism. These measures aim to provide both recognition and restitution to the descendants of enslaved Africans through monetary payments, housing benefits, healthcare and educational opportunities, and other forms of compensation. Although the concept of reparations is not unique to the US - other countries like France and South Africa have implemented reparations - this article will focus on US-specific reparations initiatives.
Nationally, the discussion around reparations has evolved significantly in recent years, with legislative proposals at a national level such as H.R. 40, which seeks to establish a federal commission to study and develop reparations proposals, and H.R. 414, which formally recognizes the “moral and legal obligation of the United States to provide reparations for the enslavement of Africans and its lasting harm on the lives of millions of Black people in the United States.” H.R. 40 was first introduced in 1989, but was reintroduced to the House of Representatives in 2023. H.R. 414 was introduced for the first time in 2023. At the time of this article’s publication, neither bill had come to a vote in either the House or Senate.
Although supporters of reparations continue to await progress at the federal level, some local governments and institutions have taken steps to formally apologize for their roles in perpetuating racial injustice and have established their own reparations commissions to explore viable strategies for recompense. For example, in 2021, Evanston, Illinois became the first city in the nation to issue and fund slavery reparations, committing to distribute $10 million over ten years to Black residents to address the wealth gaps resulting from historical housing discrimination. Building on this progress, First Repair, an Evanston-based nonprofit founded by former Evanston alderman Robin Rue Simmons, has sought to advocate for and support reparations efforts in other municipalities across the country. Rue Simmons is widely recognized as having led the passage of the reparations legislation in Evanston.
History of Reparations in the US
Although reparations for African Americans have gained attention recently, the concept and practice have long-standing precedents, including reparations provided to Native American communities. Historically, Native Americans received land allocations and financial compensation as redress for the severe disruptions and dispossessions they faced throughout the first several hundred years of U.S. history. Other efforts to reconcile injustices against racial and ethnic groups include the $1.5 billion that was paid to interned Japanese Americans following World War II and the Marshall Plan, which supported compensation extended to Jewish survivors of the Holocaust in Europe.
Past efforts to provide reparations or recompense to African Americans in the United States have been marked by promises, some fulfilled but many reneged upon. The most emblematic of these efforts is the Civil War-era promise of “40 acres and a mule.” This initiative, originating from General William Sherman’s Special Field Order No. 15, aimed to redistribute roughly 400,000 acres of confiscated Confederate land to freed slaves to help them start their new lives. Each family was to receive up to 40 acres, and the army’s surplus mules were also to be distributed to aid in their farming endeavors. However, after President Abraham Lincoln’s assassination, his successor, Andrew Johnson, promptly rescinded the order, returning the land to its previous Confederate owners. This reversal deprived newly freed African Americans of a vital opportunity for economic independence and wealth-building.
The Rationale for Reparations in Housing
The call for reparations is grounded in recognition of the systemic injustices that have impacted African Americans throughout American history. Beyond the impacts of slavery itself and its legacy, which are numerous and profound, racial discrimination in lending and housing policies are central to this rationale. For instance, redlining, a practice sanctioned by the federal government in the 1930s, systemically denied African Americans access to mortgage financing and confined them to poorer neighborhoods while simultaneously devaluing properties in predominantly Black areas. These actions obstructed wealth accumulation and undermined economic stability in Black communities.
These injustices extend beyond explicit racial discrimination. Urban renewal programs of the mid-20th century, often dubbed “Negro removal” by critics, displaced countless African American families, eroding community bonds and heritage. These programs frequently targeted Black neighborhoods for redevelopment, purporting progress while effectively demolishing established communities for highways and commercial development without fair compensation or viable housing alternatives. The long-term effects of these policies are still evident today in the socioeconomic status and infrastructure disparities across racial lines.
The call for reparations is also a call to acknowledge the historical impacts of racial discrimination in an official way, thus integrating recognition of these transgressions and their widespread implications into the national consciousness. By formally recognizing the ways in which specific policies have disadvantaged African American communities, reparations could foster a broader understanding and commitment to justice and equity. This includes reevaluating how housing policies have systematically excluded certain populations and working towards solutions that ensure fair housing practices and equal access to resources for all citizens. Reparations, therefore, are proposed as a necessary step toward rectifying the institutional barriers that persist in housing and beyond, laying a foundation for true healing and inclusive progress.
Reparations Counterarguments
Counterarguments to reparations for slavery and systemic racial discrimination often highlight concerns about practicality, equity, and unintended social consequences. Critics question the feasibility of accurately identifying recipients and determining appropriate compensation, given the complexity of tracing genealogical histories back to the original injustices targeted. However, improvements in modern technology and methodologies in genealogical research have made significant strides in recent years, allowing for mor accurate tracing of ancestry than ever before. Additionally, reparations programs can be designed to benefit descendants of slaves more broadly, rather than pinpointing specific individuals.
Another prominent concern is the potential for reparations to exacerbate social divisions rather than heal them. Opponents argue that assigning financial value to historical suffering might foster resentment rather than promote reconciliation. They suggest that focusing on reparations as a remedy might divert attention and resources from addressing present-day inequalities through improvements in education, housing, and community development. This concern draws attention to the importance of coupling reparations efforts with education about their purpose. Ultimately, by acknowledging past wrongs and compensating for them, reparations symbolize a commitment to fostering an ongoing sense of justice and closure.
Further complicating the debate are philosophical and ethical dimensions, with some critics asserting that current generations should not be held financially accountable for the actions of their ancestors. This perspective posits that while historical injustices were undeniably egregious, the responsibility for corrective action should not involve punitive measures against individuals not directly involved in the injustices. However, this stance overlooks the fact that many groups continue to benefit from the economic and social injustices established by those injustices. As such, reparations should be seen as part of a broader commitment to systemic reform and equal opportunity, including forward-looking measures such as improvements in education, housing, and community development.
Strategies for Implementing Reparations
Implementing reparations can involve a range of strategies, each tailored to the specific injustices it aims to address. However, recent conversations have centered on the relatively straightforward approach of providing direct financial compensation to the targeted group. This approach is not unlike the reparations payments made by the government in the late 1980s to Japanese Americans interned during World War II. However, reparations for African Americans currently lack the federal government support that largely enabled the source funding for these payments. Barring support from the federal government, other funding mechanisms have been examined. For example, Evanston’s reparations program is funded by a tax on recreational cannabis. Funds raised are allocated to address housing disparities by providing select African American residents of the city with grants for home repairs, down payments, and interest or late payments related to property in Evanston.
Another strategy utilized in Evanston was the creation of a Reparations Committee, which was responsible for studying community recommendations for repair. According to Evanston-based nonprofit First Repair, which advocates for reparations in communities across the country, local committees and commissions focused on reparations can be critical to catalyzing both local and national change. These approaches emphasize the importance of grassroots involvement and community-driven solutions in achieving justice.
Another effective strategy from First Repair’s toolkit is the creation of comprehensive “Harm Reports.” These reports draw from both historical data and personal narratives to educate communities about the depth of historical injustices and provide a factual basis for reparations proposals. For instance, Evanston utilized detailed archival research to underpin its reparations initiatives and ensure that programs were contextually appropriate. Harm Reports can also be used to support educational initiatives such as reparations-focused school curriculums or public exhibitions outlining the narratives and data supporting reparative actions.
The toolkit also suggests fostering coalitions to support reparations efforts, involving stakeholders including policymakers, educators, and civic leaders. These coalitions can play an important role in enhancing the legitimacy and credibility of reparations efforts, and by incorporating a diverse array of viewpoints, they help to ensure that reparative measures are comprehensive and sufficiently inclusive of all affected groups. In addition, broad-based coalitions are ultimately critical to supporting legislative actions to formalize government support for reparative justice.
Other components of an effective reparations strategy include leveraging educational campaigns, legislative actions, and modern technology. Educational initiatives are vital for raising public awareness and ensuring that communities understand the need for reparations. This can involve integrating discussions on reparations into school curriculums and conducting public exhibitions or media campaigns to outline the narratives and data supporting reparative actions. Simultaneously,
Innovative Solutions to Advance Racial Equity in Housing
At Ivory Innovations, we believe that reparations are a powerful tool to address the inequalities that remain from centuries of discrimination. However, we recognize that the pursuit of reparations for historical injustices is a multifaceted and profound challenge, with no single approach capable of perfectly achieving the desired outcome. To delve deeper into the various approaches to reparations, we spotlight the work of several past Ivory Prize winners and finalists who have actively engaged in reparative initiatives. These organizations have crafted innovative strategies to address the legacies of inequality through advocacy programs, down payment assistance, and direct subsidy, among other models. Their work exemplifies how diverse and creative solutions can contribute to a broader reparative framework and help build a more equitable future.
First Repair - First Repair has taken a local-to-national approach in the centuries-long movement for Black reparations. Localities nationwide, like Evanston, IL, are prioritizing housing-related redress as a first tangible step to repair the legacies of slavery in the United States.
Dearfield Fund for Black Wealth - Launched by Gary Community Ventures, in partnership with Denver's Black community, The Dearfield Fund for Black Wealth provides up to $40,000 in down-payment assistance to first-time Black and African American homebuyers to help build generational wealth. The Dearfield Fund for Black Wealth aims to close the racial wealth gap and accelerate Black homeownership by generating an average of $100K in net worth for 500-600 Black families, leading to $50-$75M in wealth creation for the Black community in Denver, CO. The fund seeks to build a community of practice and replication model to assist other cities in deploying this innovative fund model in their markets.
The Black Homeownership Collaborative - The Black Homeownership Collaborative is a multi-year initiative dedicated to significantly increasing Black homeownership. A coalition of more than 100 organizations and housing advocates, the “3by30” initiative seeks to create 3 million net new Black homeowners by 2030 through an ambitious plan of seven tangible, actionable, and scalable steps to help close the homeownership gap.